1 Introduction

Harbin, in northeastern China, has become a popular winter tourism destination with millions of visitors. During the “Harbin tourism boom” from December 30, 2023 to January 1, 2024, Harbin welcomed 3 million visitors, generating 5.9 billion yuan ($826.75 million) in tourism revenue (Xinhua, 2024; Liu, 2024). This accomplishment garnered attention on Chinese social media. Harbin, the “ice city”, attracted tourists from Guangdong and Hainan to enjoy its culture. Harbin, the future host of the Asian Winter Games, is renowned for its distinctive ice and snow festival, a highlight that has captured widespread attention in 2024 (CGTN, 2024). Despite being one of the coldest cities in China, Harbin has quickly become a key hub in the burgeoning winter tourism sector. The popularity of Harbin is not accidental. In 2023, China was witnessing a new wave of tourism in the post-epidemic era, with new cultural and tourism industry dynamics emerging, supported by government policies and new technologies (He, 2023, p.1). The public is now more interested in “anti-mainstream”, “small-town” destinations, so this “tourism wave” is gradually decreasing tourism to modern, economically developed big cities. Cultural tourism has expanded in smaller, less economically developed cities. New media platforms like TikTok, RED, Auto Quicker, and WeChat have helped most small cities market their dining, landscape, history, and culture to attract tourists and grow tourism. Some cities have gained many followers on these platforms through “cross-dressing videos”, “special cuisines” and “hit spots”. In 2024, Harbin became China’s top tourist destination due to rapid social media use. This research employs a discourse analytical approach to analyze multimodal metaphors in 40 videos featuring Harbin that are distributed across new media platforms, including Xiaohongshu (“Little Red Book”) and TikTok. This study analyses multimodal metaphors to understand how new media constructs and communicates Harbin’s urban renaissance and its sociocultural implications. The study offers practical insights into the analysis of multimodal metaphors and demonstrates the viability of combining translation, metaphor, and semiotic analysis within the framework of sociological framing theory. Based on the development of cultural tourism in small and medium-sized cities in China, this paper analyses the future development trends of cultural tourism and how third- and fourth-tier cities can use new media platforms to promote urban tourism and finally provides relevant operational suggestions.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Multimodal Metaphor and Urban Discourse

It is essential for understanding the role of multimodal metaphors in urban discourse to shape public perceptions and improve city branding strategies. Since Forceville’s seminal work in 1996, the concept of multimodal/visual/pictorial metaphor has expanded significantly. Forceville and Urios-Aparisi (2009) define multimodal metaphor as a phenomenon where the target and source are represented primarily in different modes, while visual/pictorial metaphors feature the target and source predominantly in one mode. However, Eggertsson and Forceville (2009) argue that most multimodal metaphors in moving images involve multiple modes simultaneously, making them broadly classified as multimodal metaphors. Thus, the term multimodal metaphor broadly encompasses visual and pictorial metaphors, serving as a general descriptor in this paper.

Forceville’s (2016) conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) emphasizes that metaphors can be vividly embodied in visual and multimodal forms as well as verbal language. Ravelli et al. (2018) highlight that the visual element plays a crucial role in generating meaning and influencing the perception of the world. They pointed out that the visual itself lies in how it is used to create meaning and shape the world, emphasizing the importance of visual metaphors in communication and their broader sociocultural implications. This approach aligns with Fraser and Wilmott’s (2020) exploration of how visual approaches map urban ecologies and the dichotomy between digital urbanism and urban decay, providing a richer context for understanding the complexity of city brands and discourses. Significantly, it explores the implications of these metaphors in various genres and media, illustrating how metaphors transcend traditional linguistic boundaries to influence perception and communication across modalities.

Scholars have also examined “multimodality” and multimodal metaphors through the lenses of technology, culture, and linguistic integration. Pérez-Sobrino (2016) analyses multimodal metaphors and metonyms in 210 ads. According to this study, the most common conceptual operation in advertising is the compound word “metaphor” consisting of metaphor and metonymy, indicating that the model and marketing strategy influence the complexity of the concept. The inclusion of visual and textual cues in advertising messages can boost effectiveness. This corpus-based study investigates the figurative language dynamics of advertising, with a focus on metaphor and metonymy understanding and use in multimodal contexts, which are crucial to urban branding and discourse strategies. These studies suggested that a broader understanding of metaphor that includes its visual and multimodal dimensions can help us understand how metaphors work in daily life and across cultures and media.

Forceville (2017) then examines cultural perspectives on advertising visual and multimodal metaphors. He discusses how visual metaphors in ads require cultural background knowledge and may be interpreted differently across cultures. This insight is especially relevant in urban discourse, where cities like Harbin use cultural metaphors that boost their global appeal. Forceville suggests integrating these points of view into educational settings to enhance understanding of global advertising strategies. Zhang et al. (2021) annotated 10,437 text-image pairs with metaphoricity, domain relations, sentiments, and author intents to improve metaphor understanding across text and image, laying the groundwork for future advances in natural language processing and cognitive linguistics. Zhong et al. (2023) analyze 397 multimodal metaphor research publications identifying trend in cognitive linguistics, pragmatics, and visual/multimodal rhetoric trends. These studies offer an in-depth review of the structure and perception of multimodal metaphors, which is essential for comprehending the complexity of urban branding through new media.

Despite significant advancements in understanding multimodal metaphors, there remains a need for more research into how these metaphors are processed and understood across different cultural and technological contexts. Specifically, the relationship between emerging digital platforms and multimodal metaphor use, and how these metaphors can be utilized for education, marketing, and intercultural communication, are promising urban discourse fields of further in-depth study.

2.2 City Branding and Images

Globally, tourism plays a crucial role in the economic landscape, serving as a key driver for national economies and a major source of foreign exchange earnings for many countries. City marketing has become a hot topic of international research over the past 20 years, with many countries and regions establishing effective city marketing practices that enhance urban competitiveness and development.

The concepts of city promotion, marketing, and branding are commonly explored in academic discussions. Branding has helped cities worldwide establish unique identities and increase their international appeal (Kaika, 2010). Recently, city branding research has increased in tourism, marketing, and city brand values (Ma et al., 2021; Pasquinelli, 2022). City branding uses publicized traits to distinguish a city from others. It focuses on public perceptions and associations with the city’s experiential, emotional, and functional aspects. Establishing a city brand requires positioning, identification, marketing, and management.

Kotler (2015) applied marketing theories to city marketing in “Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry, and Tourism to Cities, States, and Nations.” He successfully integrated city brand strategy with city marketing, defining local marketing as planning and designing to satisfy citizens, businesses, visitors, and investors. Kotler emphasized that strategic marketing planning is essential for self-development and preparing for the future. The strategic development of a city’s brand image is designed to establish a unique city brand by utilizing the city’s identity through specific images or symbols that distinguish it from other cities, thereby generating a recognition effect. This strategic city branding approach strengthens a city’s soft and hard power and aligns it with stakeholder identities, making it irreplaceable in the competitive landscape.

2.3 Chinese Cities and Social Media

In the context of China, existing research has explored the evolution of city image branding on social media. Milttler (2020) analyzed power, identity, and change in Shanghai, while Lu and Pan (2020) noted an increasing complexity in urban development strategies as cities progress from promotion to branding, finding a positive correlation between city branding and urban development levels, especially in larger, wealthier cities with developed tertiary sectors. Wang and Loo (2019) examined the hierarchy of Chinese cities in virtual spaces using Baidu Media and Search Indices, finding that internet media coverage of cities correlates with their real-world characteristics like administrative status and economic development. Their results also show that internet visibility influences cities' abilities to attract attention and resources, thereby enhancing their development and global integration.

Ma et al. (2021) investigated the transition from city marketing to city branding across 23 Chinese cities, examining the relationship between these strategies and the cities’ economic profiles. They discovered that while cities with strong primary sectors are less likely to employ such strategies, those with developed tertiary sectors tend to use more advanced branding techniques. The authors recommend aligning branding with urban development goals for better results. Sevin and Björner (2015) discovered that the media coverage of Beijing and Shenzhen is insufficient to facilitate China’s international relations and help them gain global recognition. Similarly, Guo and Ren (2024) found that social media interactions, particularly self-praise reactions, greatly impact public perception and city branding efforts. Despite their efforts to enhance their global branding, neither city has been able to secure media coverage that effectively supports their development and branding strategies.

Ye and Jeon (2020) utilized semiotic mapping to divide consumer perceptions into four quadrants: mission, project, euphoria, and information for city branding in China’s tourism sector. This method fills a gap in Chinese city branding tools by emphasizing the need to align branding with tourists’ cultural expectations. Wang and Feng (2021) examined how Xi’an brands itself on TikTok using multimodal critical discourse analysis. They analyzed 294 TikTok videos to show how Xi’an uses social media to blend its past and present, making it a popular tourist destination. Liu and Li (2022) studied Hubei Province’s 10-minute post-pandemic promotional video on YouTube, Douyin, and WeChat using multimodal metaphor theory. It showed how metaphors like ‘war’, ‘bridge’, and ‘hand’ help Hubei become a symbol of resilience and recovery. They highlight the importance of cities aligning branding with cultural norms and using modern media to showcase their unique identities and strengths. These studies examine city branding in China using semiotic scales, critical discourse, and metaphor analysis, focusing on major southern cities like Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen, as well as historical centers like Xi’an. Their investigations focus on how these cities use social media to improve their branding, using cutting-edge techniques to examine how the public perceives them and how they are portrayed in the media. However, there is a significant gap in the cultural perspectives of city branding, particularly for less-studied regions. Most studies focus on economically dominant or historically rich southern Chinese supercities.

This focus overlooks regions like Dongbei, which have unique cultural narratives and developmental trajectories distinct from the mainstream portrayal of urban China. The proposed study aims to fill this gap by being the first to examine the reconstruction and renaissance of Dongbei, with a specific focus on Harbin. To understand and interpret Harbin’s city brand, it will use multimodal metaphor analysis of new media representations and social media data. This approach will expand the geographic and cultural scope of city branding research in China and shed light on emerging cities’ branding strategies in less-documented regions.

3 Method

3.1 Analytical Framework

This study examines Harbin’s multimodal metaphors in new media using a comprehensive discourse analytical framework. The analysis includes Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP), developed by the Pragglejaz Group (2007), reliably identifies discourse metaphors. It applies to spoken and written texts and has been statistically validated for high reliability among analysts. MIP emphasizes context to reduce subjectivity and variability. For large corpora, MIP is complicated, laborious, and time-consuming. It also struggles with non-standard language and ignores other figurative languages.

Steen et al. (2010) refined MIP into MIPVU, which identifies metaphors in news texts, conversations, fiction, and academic discourse. MIPVU, like MIP, is empirically reliable and applicable to English and Dutch texts. Despite its robustness, MIPVU’s complexity and the requirement for manual annotation limit its use in large-scale studies. Additionally, it may struggle with non-standard texts and subjectivity in some steps, potentially overshadowing other figurative languages.

Identification of source and target domains is crucial for metaphor mapping. Stefanowitsch (2006) suggested a corpus-based approach instead of intuition. This is limited and time-consuming. Ahrens and Jiang (2020) introduced the Source Domain Verification Procedure (SDVP), which uses corpus-based lexical resources to identify source domains in Chinese and English texts and contextually determine target domains.

This study employs MIPVU to identify metaphors in visual and multimodal contexts, and SDVP to identify the source domain. It incorporates important elements from Bounegru and Forceville’s (2011) research. This study determines the metaphorical significance of the visual elements by examining the context. The visual metaphors were classified and encoded based on their origin and destination domains. These methods are crucial for comprehending how new media metaphorically depict Harbin’s winter attractions, emphasizing their cultural and aesthetic importance in promoting winter tourism.

In addition, this study draws on the theoretical framework used by Liu and Li (2022) in analyzing multimodal metaphors in Xinjiang promotion videos. The research utilizes the Metaphor Identification Procedure of Free University (MIPVU) and the Source Domain Verification Procedure (SDVP), emphasizing systematic metaphor identification and domain verification to lay a solid foundation for metaphor analysis. This study integrates these procedures to study Harbin’s urban development and sociocultural context, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of multimodal metaphors in new media. Furthermore, the study also refers to FILMIP (Film Metaphor Identification Program) developed by Bort-Mir (2019) and validated through empirical studies with Bolognesi (2022). This is a systematic approach for recognizing metaphors in multimodal film materials. A thorough metaphor analysis incorporates multiple modes of data, including visual, auditory, and textual information. Utilizing FILMIP for videos sourced from platforms such as TikTok and Xiaohongshu enables a detailed comprehension of how audiovisual components contribute to the symbolic depiction of Harbin’s winter attractions and narratives of urban development. By combining these approaches, this study comprehensively and systematically analyzes how multimodal metaphors in new media construct and communicate Harbin’s unique identity and cultural renaissance. This integrated approach ensures a detailed and rigorous examination of the visual, auditory, and textual elements that shape Harbin’s image in contemporary media.

3.2 Data Selection

Samples were made up of 8 image-text reports with 42 videos and were collected from both official media and self-media platforms reporting on Harbin during the “Harbin tourism boom”, including China Daily, TikTok, and Xiaohongshu, based on the number of views and likes. The data were collected between December 2023 and January 2024, a period that coincided with Harbin’s sudden rise as a top-tier “internet-famous” tourist destination. This window captured key events such as the opening of the Ice and Snow World, the viral spread of the “southern little potato” narrative, and record-breaking visitor numbers over the New Year holiday, all of which fueled an intense surge in online discussion about the city. By focusing on this peak moment, the study examines how multimodal metaphors were actively produced, circulated, and contested in real time during a viral episode of urban branding. China Daily was included as a benchmark of official discourse, while Douyin and Xiaohongshu were chosen as Harbin’s most active platforms for short-video and image-text content, to represent user-generated visual communication. Although Weibo and Bilibili are major platforms, their different communicative genres (text-centric and long-form video) fall outside the scope of this study, which mainly focuses on the visual-textual interplay prevalent on the selected platforms. Table 1 shows the source, selection and coding of samples.

TABLE 1  TOTAL SAMPLES SUMMARY

For the visual data analyzed in this study, a distinction in presentation is made based on the source. Official images are reproduced with standard academic citations, as their public and often copyright-cleared nature permits such use. Self-media images are not reproduced in this paper. Instead, their content is described in the text and referenced by their original source codes (e.g., B2-7, B1-3) to facilitate analysis. This approach aligns with ethical research practices for digital media. The self-media content referenced in this manner includes:

B2-7: The Snowman

B2-10: Southern Little Potatoes

B1-3: Southern Little Potatoes

B2-5: Little Golden Beans

B2-4: Crowded People

B1-8: The Fluffy Skirt

B2-4: Invasion

B1-10: A Replica of Hogwarts

B2-1: Little Fox Spirit and Miss Daji

B1-7: A Man’s Hair Covered in Ice

B1-10: Hot Air Balloon Floating Above the Frozen Songhua River

B2-3 and B2-9: Ethnic Minority Tourists

Metaphorical frameworks in Harbin’s official and self-media cultural and tourism communication are examined in this paper. It compares content element preferences and their effects on sample videos to explain structural differences in city branding between the two media types.

We pre-processed 32 sample videos with ByteDig software, taking frame-by-frame screenshots every second, to extract important content elements. This produced 625 official media screenshots and 765 self-media screenshots. After removing similar and blurry screenshots and adding images from 8 image-text reports, the final set resulted in 151 official media images and 118 self-media images. Non-verbal libraries were created by these images. Then, combining transcribed video narrations and subtitles with static text, linguistic material libraries were built.

Two researchers extracted, coded, and tallied the essential components of the content, engaging in discussions and resolving discrepancies in coding to maintain uniformity.

3.3 Data Analysis

Through the comprehensive analysis of metaphorical expressions in non-verbal libraries and linguistic material libraries, results demonstrate that samples contain a total of 36 different multimodal metaphorical expressions. Among them, there are 13 metaphorical expressions shared by official media and self-media (seeing in Table 2), 9 metaphorical expressions unique to official media (seeing in Table 3), and 14 metaphorical expressions unique to self-media (seeing in Table 4).

  TABLE 2  SHARED MULTIMODAL METAPHORS FOR OFFICIAL MEDIA AND SELF-MEDIA

TABLE 3  UNIQUE MULTIMODAL METAPHORS FOR OFFICIAL MEDIA

TABLE 4  UNIQUE MULTIMODAL METAPHORS FOR SELF-MEDIA

According to target domains, these 36 multimodal metaphors can be divided into 16 categories. Harbin as target domains has the highest frequency of 141, followed by prosperity as target domains with the frequency of 69. Other target domains with frequency of more than 10 are European culture, warm and spicy character, local culture, romance, tourists and students. Table 5 details the classification of multimodal metaphors according to target domains.

TABLE 5  CLASSIFYING MULTIMODAL METAPHORS BY TARGET DOMAINS

To further explore the similarities and differences between multimodal metaphorical frameworks used by official media and self-media, the 36 multimodal metaphors are classified into 15 categories according to the type of source domains. Among them, street metaphors, celebration metaphor and balloon metaphor are the unique metaphorical expressions for official media. Meanwhile, war metaphor is the unique metaphorical framework for self-media. The other remaining multimodal metaphors are shared by both official media and self-media when communicating Harbin city brand. In terms of usage preference, both official media and self-media prefer human metaphor and building metaphor. The most favorite metaphor of official media is human metaphor (38.06% of the total), while self-media prefers food metaphor most, taking up 38.98% of the total. In addition, food metaphor, street metaphor and snow metaphor are also preferred by official media, taking up 20.65%, 14.84% and 11.61% of the total, respectively. At the same time, animal metaphor is preferred by self-media (10.17% of the total). Details of multimodal metaphors classified by the type of origin domains are shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6  CLASSIFYING MULTIMODAL METAPHORS BY THE TYPE OF SOURCE DOMAINS

4 Results

4.1 Shared Metaphorical Frames for Official-Media and Self-Media

1) Example 1: Ice and Snow, Snowman, and Ice and Snow World

Ice and snow are Harbin’s most common metaphors, with 14 samples. The image in A2-8 (Figure 1) and the video in B2-7 showed a large, beautifully decorated, and cute snowman symbolising Harbin as the “City of Ice and Snow”. In contrast, A2-9 (Figure 2) metaphorically links Harbin to Ice and Snow World.

FIG. 1  A2-8: THE SNOWMAN

FIG. 2  A2-9: ICE AND SNOW WORLD

Harbin, the “Ice City”, is one of China’s coldest cities, with frequent snowfall and temperatures below zero in winter. Harbin is symbolized by ice, snow, and snowmen, making them good metaphors. The world’s largest ice and snow-themed amusement park, Ice and Snow World, also reinforces this metaphor with its cultural symbolism.

Yet, ice, snow, and snowmen are not unique to Harbin; they are also characteristic of the Arctic and Antarctic. The metaphor fails Semino’s (2021) criterion for precise and clear mappings from source to target domains, limiting its effectiveness. Use this metaphorical framework with other unique and context-specific metaphors to avoid ambiguous analogies and misunderstandings.

2) Example 2: Southern Little Potatoes (南方小土豆)

The metaphorical framework of “Southern little potatoes” for “tourists visiting Harbin, especially from the South” is frequently used, with 10 samples employing this metaphor. In videos B2-10, the caption reads “basking in the glory of Southern little potatoes” (沾南方小土豆的光啦), while video B1-3 states “the Southern little potatoes can play with fireworks as much as they want at night,” referring to southern tourists visiting Harbin.

This metaphor reflects Harbin residents’ enthusiasm in welcoming visitors from other regions. The cute and friendly term quickly gained popularity on social media, with many southern tourists embracing the nickname “Southern little potatoes”. This framework has been widely accepted and its directionality is clear.

However, the term’s physical connotations—small size and black-yellow skin—have led to accusations of regional discrimination. The question, “Is ‘southern spuds’ a discriminatory term?” (Liu, 2024), highlights concerns that it can be seen as self-deprecating. Although unintentional, this metaphor has offended some tourists, failing to meet Semino’s (2021) criterion for effective metaphors, which requires precise and unbiased mappings.

To address these concerns, alternative names have emerged. For instance, A2-5 illustrations (Figure 3) use “Potato Princess”, and the B2-5 video uses “Little Golden Beans”. These alternatives remove discriminatory undertones, making the metaphor more acceptable and effective in communication.

FIG. 3  A2-5: POTATO PRINCESS

3) Example 3: Colorful Lights

FIG. 4  A2-2: COLOURFUL LIGHTS

Six of this article’s 40 samples used “colorful lights” to represent “prosperity”. The scene of colorful lights illuminating Ice and Snow World at night in A2-2 (Figure 4) symbolizes Harbin’s prosperity and development.

Colorful lights illuminate and beautify busy cities due to vibrant nightlife and developed evening activities. After dark, rural areas are quiet and lack crowds and colorful lights. Thus, colorful lights represent prosperity. Modern society accepts this metaphor, making it clear and direct. Colorful lights are tangible and impartial, while prosperity is abstract and complicated. Therefore, this metaphorical framework is reasonable and appropriate.

4) Example 4: Crowded People

Both official and self-media frequently showcase visual information about crowded places. Many people imply prosperity and thriving, like the metaphor of colorful lights. Both metaphors represent Harbin’s prosperity.

According to the A1-6 video (Figure 5), Harbin Ice and Snow World has “Nearly 10,000 tourists”. At Ice and Snow World, crowded people show Harbin’s prosperity by conveying the constant flow of visitors. Self-media B2-4 video uses panoramic shots and fast-forward effects to present a dense, moving crowd. This imagery reinforces “crowded people” as a sign of popularity and energy. These videos show crowds at Ice and Snow World, which symbolizes Harbin’s vibrancy and prosperity.

FIG. 5  A1-6: CROWDED PEOPLE.

5) Example 5: Flower-print Cotton-padded Jackets

Flower-print cotton-padded jackets are common attire for rural women in Northeast China. The region’s extremely cold and snowy winters make the outdoor scenery dull and monotonous, often creating a depressing atmosphere. To brighten their surroundings, lift their spirits, and create a festive atmosphere, rural women have made their cotton-padded jackets vibrant and colorful with flower prints. These jackets make them look dazzling and eye-catching and align with the passionate, straightforward, and generous nature of Northeasterners. Flower-print cotton-padded jackets have become cultural symbols of Northeastern China, representing the people’s passionate and straightforward nature. The metaphorical framework of flower-print cotton-padded jackets as the source domain and the enthusiastic and vibrant character of Northeasterners as the target domain is shared by both official and self-media in this study. Five samples use this visual metaphor. In the A2-3 video (Figure 6), Jiang Kedong introduces the “Rabbit Dance” to reporters in a flower-print cotton-padded jacket. Jiang created the lively “Rabbit Dance” to warm Harbin tourists and improve their stay. His bright clothes reflect Jiang’s warm, outgoing Northeasterner personality and his boldness. This reinforces the image of Northeasterners as warm and straightforward.

FIG. 6  A2-3: FLOWER-PRINT COTTON-PADDED JACKETS

6) Example 6: European-style Elements

FIG. 7  A2-8: SOFIA CATHEDRAL AND ICE SCULPTURE OF A PIANO PLAYER

Sofia Cathedral, symphony performances, piano recitals, and fluffy skirts symbolize Harbin’s unique blend of European and Asian cultures, earning it the nickname “Eastern Paris”. Both official and self-media adhere to this metaphorical framework. The Sofia Cathedral and an ice sculpture of a piano player are source domains in official media, such as the images in A2-8 (Figure 7). The Eurasian cultural fusion of Harbin is metaphorically highlighted by these Western elements. In the B1-8 video, a woman’s fluffy skirt, which is believed to have originated in Europe, is employed as the source domain in self-media to symbolize the same cultural integration.

Showcasing these European-style elements allows Harbin to indirectly highlight its Eurasian cultural blend, reinforcing its reputation as the “Eastern Paris” and making it more appealing and memorable. Harbin is renowned as the “Museum of International Architecture”, where eclectic architecture and styles like Byzantine, Baroque, and Art Nouveau coexist on what was formerly known as “China Street”—now Central Street.

4.2 Different Metaphorical Frames for Official-Media and Self-Media

1) Adventure or Invasion

Official media often use journey metaphors to describe southern tourists visiting Harbin. For example, A1-1 states, “Such gestures of care have provided the parents with peace of mind, allowing them to wholeheartedly embrace the adventure”. Here, the visit is seen as an adventure. Conversely, self-media prefers war metaphors. In video B2-4, the influx of southern tourists to Ice and Snow World is described as an “invasion”(攻城), with a voiceover saying “kill” (殺). The text also states, “During the New Year holiday, tourists visiting Harbin Ice and Snow World are like an army attacking a city (元旦假期，來哈爾濱冰雪大世界游玩的旅客，猶如攻城一般)”.

Traveling is usually done to relax and broaden one’s horizons in terms of experiences and knowledge. As a result, the journey metaphor evokes feelings of calm, comfort, and pleasure. Harbin provides an exciting adventure for southern tourists, and the relationship between southern and northeastern people is equal and harmonious. This statement emphasizes tourists’ enjoyment and intellectual growth through travel, implying that Harbin’s unique attractions encourage curiosity and knowledge. This metaphorical framework is appropriate and suitable, free from strong subjective beliefs and with a clear direction. The experience of southern tourists coming to Harbin is abstract and colorful, while adventure as a source domain is well-known and rich in meaning.

War’s goal is to plunder and invade, violating others’ rights. War metaphors imply aggression, violence, and opposition. Many scholars criticize healthcare’s war metaphors. Hauser and Schwarz (2019) point out war metaphors discourage cancer prevention like drinking less. Semino (2021) emphasizes war metaphors’ negative effects. Comparing southern Ice and Snow World visitors to a northeastern “invasion” is a war metaphor. It suggests that southern tourists are not a success of Harbin’s cultural and tourism promotion but a failure of the city’s defense because they occupy and invade the city. This metaphor distorts the equal relationship between Southerners and the Northeast into a hierarchical one of exploitation, inadvertently exacerbating regional conflicts. It also weakens the image of Harbin people and tarnishes the image of southern people.

Therefore, the metaphorical framework of using “invasion” to describe southern tourists visiting the Ice and Snow World violates the three criteria for evaluating metaphor effectiveness (Semino, 2021) due to its strong subjective violent connotations, making it unreasonable and inappropriate.

2) The Absence and Preference of Internet Slang

In selecting source domains, official media prioritize authority and seriousness. Apart from well-known internet memes like “Southern little potatoes” and “little tangerines” (小柑橘) , they rarely use other popular internet slang. In contrast, self-media aligns more with trends and prefers internet slang.

To promote Harbin, official media like A2-2 states, “Many free warm and cosy rest stations have been set up at its major tourist attractions, which have proved popular with tourists, especially those not fully prepared for the bitter-cold reality of the fairy tale world of snow and ice”. The dreamlike Harbin Ice and Snow World is called “fairy tale world” here. Self-media uses a different approach. The B1-10 video shows Harbin’s charm and Chinese-Western culture with images, subtitles, and commentary. Harbin's mystery and charm are symbolized by “A Replica of Hogwarts” using the Harry Potter IP image. Official media often refer to the snow fox tourism IP as a Songhua River snow fox or a small Northeast Chinese snow fox. This is obvious but unappealing. Self-media, on the other hand, uses terms like “Little fox spirit” (小狐狸精) and refers to visitors as “Miss Daji” (妲己小姐姐) (B2-1), utilizing popular internet slang. This vividly showcases the snow fox’s charm and praises the visitors, effectively capturing public attention with the novelty and approachability of internet slang.

Social media has made internet slang more common, and it is well-known for its youthful appeal, humour, uniqueness, vivacity, and conciseness. When used appropriately, it can serve as a source domain that draws attention fast and increases public interest in the target domain. Official media can benefit from the utilization of internet slang by self-media for the purpose of cultural and tourism promotion.

3) Different Expressions for “Coldness”

Harbin's winter features heavy snowfall and sub-zero temperatures. Both official and social media use metaphors to describe this extreme cold. Official media often use words, like in A2-5’s title “China’s ‘ice city’ Harbin becomes hot tourist destination”, where “Ice city” metaphorically represents the severe cold. In contrast, self-media platforms prefer visual metaphors. For example, in the B1-7 video, an image of a man’s hair covered in ice vividly conveys Harbin’s cold weather.

Most people recognize and remember images, which have the strongest emotional impact (Liu, 2008). Harbin’s winter weather is better understood and experienced by showing it in images rather than words, reaching a wider audience. This method also evokes surprise, shock, and excitement, making cold weather more memorable. Thus, official media should use more visual symbols in metaphorical discourse to strengthen public memory of the target domain and improve dissemination.

4) Other Different Metaphorical Frames

Additionally, official media and self-media employ different metaphorical frames. For instance, when depicting “the romantic features of Harbin”, official media often choose “rose walls made of ice” as the source domain (Figure 8), whereas self-media prefer the imagery of a hot air balloon floating above the frozen Songhua River (B1-10).

FIG. 8  A2-5: ROSE WALLS MADE OF ICE

Moreover, official media frequently use “little tangerines” as the source domain when illustrating Harbin’s kind hospitality. A2-1 (Figure 9) reflects on 11 Guangxi children who are on an educational trip to Harbin, emphasizing the city’s cordial and hospitable attitude towards guests from other regions. Conversely, self-media emphasizes ethnic minority tourists, illustrating scenes of Oroqen and Daur individuals visiting Harbin (B2-3 and B2-9) to communicate the city’s acceptance and enthusiasm for individuals from a variety of ethnic backgrounds.

FIG. 9  A2-1: LITTLE TANGERINES

Although these metaphorical frameworks do not have a distinction in the effectiveness and quality of metaphorical usage, they clearly reflect the differences in the focal points of attention between official media and self-media.

5 Discussion and Conclusion

The Ice and Snow World and its artworks, such ice sculptures and snowmen, are eagerly promoted by both official and self-media. Though they are most often seen in self-media, panoramic or close-up views of the Ice and Snow World are the second most often seen content in official media. This demonstrates that the Ice and Snow World is the core of Harbin’s cultural tourism marketing and brand image. It not only represents Harbin as an “ice city”, but it also highlights its cultural and heritage value through various ice sculptures and winter programmes. Compared to the romantic depictions of the Songhua River hot air balloon and Central Street rose ice wall, the Ice and Snow World’s exhibitions and amusement programs are more popular and attract a broader audience across different ages and socio-economic backgrounds.

The grand scale and significant investment in the Ice and Snow World draws considerable attention. User comments on official media short videos reveal that audiences from various regions are amazed by its vast area and substantial investment. However, this focus on the project’s size and cost can shift public opinion negatively. Some users question the necessity of such an investment, seeing it as a waste of resources for a project lasting only two to three months.

Xu et al. (2025) posit that the urban image is not static but is continuously shaped and reshaped through complex interactions between official narratives, media representations, resident experiences, and visitor perceptions (p. 1). In fact, both official and self-media should shift the focus from the scale and investment of the Ice and Snow World to the cultural significance and symbolic significance of the Ice and Snow World, emphasizing the reasons behind the design features and the spirit and culture embodied in the design. Emphasizing cultural connotations will help audiences accept it. For example, the huge Chinese dragon ice sculpture of B2-2, accompanied by inspiring music, effectively aroused the nationalist sentiment of Chinese audiences and showed Chinese culture and positive spirit to the world. While there are shared elements in the portrayal of Harbin’s brand image by official and self-media, significant differences exist. By focusing on the cultural and symbolic aspects of attractions like the Ice and Snow World, both media types can enhance the effectiveness of their city branding efforts.

Compared to self-media, official media places more emphasis on promoting local culture. Specifically, official media frequently highlight Harbin’s specialty foods, like frozen pears, red sausages, and Northeast barbecue. Specialty food is a frequently highlighted category among key content elements. Food effectively captures attention and generates a desire to visit audiences of all ages and nationalities. For example, A1-1, focusing on Harbin's food culture, garnered over 30K likes and 450K views, surpassing other official media videos.

Furthermore, official media prefers to highlight crowds and scenes of singing and dancing. These elements showcase Harbin’s vitality and appeal to the audience. These portrayals shape Harbin’s popularity, encouraging visits through herd mentality, but they also suggest overcrowding, which may deter tourists. Promoting crowded scenes and performances has pros and cons. Official media must combine these descriptions with information about high-quality services to address tourists’ concerns. In this regard, Zhang and Zhao (2024) emphasize the role of platform governance and community dynamics in online video culture and city brand perception. To effectively shape and communicate the image of a city to various audiences, it is necessary to understand that each platform plays a unique role.

The rose ice wall, hot air balloon, Central Street, Daowai District, and “small sugar oranges” are exclusive to official media. The rose ice wall and hot air balloon capture Harbin’s romance. The “Little Tangerines” experiences in Harbin show its people’s hospitality and simplicity. Highlighting Central Street, Daowai District, and other niche attractions enhances Harbin’s culture. These elements give the icy snow warmth and human flavor, dispelling the stereotype of Harbin as an ice city and Northeastern people as rude and reckless. This enhances the audiences overall perception of Harbin, enriching the city’s image. In contrast, self-media focuses more on Harbin’s multicultural character. Self-media often highlights elements like Sofia Cathedral, ethnic minorities such as the Oroqen, and hot springs. The combination of Sofia Cathedral and ethnic minorities metaphorically represents Harbin’s unique cultural landscape, blending Western and Chinese cultures. This not only strengthens Harbin’s brand image as the “Little Paris of the Orient” but also conveys its international character and cultural tolerance, effectively attracting tourists from diverse countries and regions.

This contrast between hot springs and Harbin’s icy outdoor scenes helps tourists overcome their cold fear and visit. The commercialization and paid nature of hot spring projects give self-media a marketing tone. Advertising content may cause aversion and resistance, hindering cultural and tourism promotion and Harbin's image. Thus, optimizing advertising content communication is essential to engage audiences without revealing commercial intentions.

This study suggests making a travelogue from hot springs and outdoor activities. This approach lets viewers relax in hot springs after a day of cold, exciting activities without promoting it. The video “Harbin One-Day Tour Tips” from Sample B2-7 naturally includes visits to the Ice and Snow World and hot springs. This strategy draws users, with some asking the blogger in the comments where to visit the hot springs and make reservations. Self-media also highlights exotic costumes, snow foxes, snow shoveling scenes and Harbin Railway Station. People are interested in Harbin’s intercultural practices in a globalized world because of exotic costumes and creatures. Harbin’s image and internationalization depend on embracing diverse cultures. Thus, official media should emulate self-media’s cultural diversity focus to promote the city’s brand. Building a multicultural city image will help Harbin follow global trends.

Official-media and self-media depict snow shoveling and Harbin Railway Station to show Harbin’s humanity. Official media emphasizes top-down institutional service, while self-media emphasizes public life and efforts. Today’s city image shaping requires balancing local culture with global trends. The official media in Harbin must highlight the city’s Chinese and Western cultural mix if it is to promote multiculturalism. Harbin's unique urban culture is best promoted through self-media.

6 Theoretical Contributions, Limitations, and Future Research

The study employs a toolkit approach to analyze the translation of multimodal metaphors in 40 short videos from platforms such as TikTok and Xiaohongshu. It shows how Harbin’s image is shaped by strategic visual and textual elements that highlight its cultural diversity and winter attractions. Corpus tools identified metaphors and described, interpreted, and explained metaphor data between official media (China Daily) and self-media. Multimodal metaphors portray Harbin as prosperous and hopeful. The study also discusses metaphor usage in videos, favoring vibrant metaphors over WAR metaphors because the former emphasizes a dynamic city image.

The study demonstrates that metaphor is a crucial frame for meaning making and that selecting metaphors can be a valuable method for reframing. It highlights multimodality in the media age, where short videos convey rich frames and meanings using verbal and visual metaphors. The 40 short videos in the Harbin case study limit the study’s generalizability. Future research could use larger corpora of verbo-pictorial tweets, Instagram posts, and streaming media. Harbin’s commitment to enhancing tourist satisfaction is evident. In response to the demands of visitors, Harbin has developed new attractions such as ice yachting, Pegasus ice stepping, and artificial moon installations at well-liked scenic locations. Heated rest areas and symphonies at airports and train stations improve visitor satisfaction. By adding southern dishes and softening their manners, Harbin has become a “people-pleasing city”. Harbin’s Ice and Snow World has grown in investment and design this year, making it an essential tourism product. Heilongjiang’s early and careful marketing campaigns drove success. Harbin seems inexperienced and influenced by internet trends compared to Chengdu, Chongqing, and Xi’an. Northeastern cities, including Harbin, need time to develop a stable and enduring city image to withstand the dynamic nature of internet popularity.

Funding: This work was supported by Jiangsu Provincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Application Research Project (Foreign Languages Category) [Grant Number 24SWB-11] and Project of Philosophy and Social Sciences Research in Jiangsu Universities [Grant Number 2023SJYB1098].

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