In an era of unprecedented global interconnectedness, the nature of international relations is undergoing a profound transformation. At the heart of this change is the growing value and importance of people-to-people exchanges (PtPE). Lasting stability in bilateral relations stems from strong ties between the people. As an indispensable cornerstone of bilateral relations, China-Australia PtPE have long served as a bridge for mutual understanding and emotional connection between the two peoples. Over the past decades, the bilateral relationship between Australia and China has been enriched and consolidated by PtPE. It is undeniable that PtPE will remain an important aspect of relations in the future. This paper, by exploring the theoretical connotations of PtPE, the strategic significance, practical frameworks, and contemporary challenges, argues that PtPE play a vital role in advancing the steady development of China-Australia relations.

To effectively advance PtPE, it is first imperative to clarify its concept and theoretical foundations. PtPE is a modern concept. However, the Chinese term Ren Wen first finds its expression in The Book of Changes (Yijing), a foundational text of ancient Chinese philosophy. The text introduces this concept by drawing a parallel between cosmic and social order, a relationship beautifully summarized in the following sentence: “one can learn about the change of seasons through observing natural phenomena while fostering social development through studying human phenomena.” (Liu, 2015, p.239) Here, the human phenomenon is a dynamic conception and can be referred to collectively as all cultural phenomena in human society. This was the first Chinese expression of PtPE. And also that was an early awareness in China of the unique functions of social learning and culture in making human civilizations.

While the practice of this idea has a long history, it wasn’t systematically articulated until the mid-20th century, when it formally became a strategy in international relations. In essence, the meaning of PtPE is the systematic facilitation of interactions between individuals from different nations to promote cross-cultural understanding and build lasting relationships. It is an exchange between hearts. A sincere and candid communication between human souls constitutes a unique aspect of its attraction in the PtPE. In terms of form, it is a form of “soft power” that operates through attraction and persuasion (Nye, 1990, p.18). In terms of scope, it encompasses a wide range of activities such as educational exchanges, cultural performances, tourism, scientific collaboration. In terms of core idea, it advocates that personal connections make the “other” more relatable, creating empathy and a network of goodwill. This not only enriches participants’ lives but also fosters a more stable and peaceful world. PtPE is the human bridge that complements and strengthens official state-to-state diplomacy.

As a vital means of fostering cross-cultural understanding, the practice of PtPE is inseparable from profound theoretical support. Among these theories, two are particularly important. The first one is Hehe philosophy, which is deeply rooted in Chinese culture. The second one is “Cultural Internationalism”, proposed by Harvard historian Akira Iriye (Iriye, 1997, p.35). And the two theories provide us with a significant intellectual framework.

In the process of PtPE, although the principles of mutual understanding and trust are universal, they are often deeply rooted in specific cultural philosophies. In the context of China, the theoretical foundation for PtPE can be traced to a profound concept known as Hehe (和合) (Zhang, 1996, p.25). Hehe consists of two Chinese characters that relate to a concept that has profound importance in Chinese culture. The first “He” embodies harmony, peace and balance. And the second “He” represents convergence, unity and cooperation. Rooted in thousands of years of philosophy, the idea of Hehe emphasizes using “unity” (合) and “harmony” (和) as the fundamental principles and ultimate goals for establishing and managing all relationships.

This philosophy provides a direct and powerful framework for the practice of PtPE. The principle of the first “He” (和) calls for exchanges to be conducted in a spirit of mutual respect, empathy, and peaceful coexistence, ensuring that interactions are not confrontational but harmonious. The second “He” (合) transforms exchanges from simple contact into deep cooperation, building shared communities and convergent action. In essence, Hehe frames people-to-people diplomacy not as a one-way transmission of culture, but as a dynamic process of co-creation, where diverse parties work together to achieve mutual growth and a more integrated, harmonious global community.

Another important theoretical perspective from which to view PtPE is cultural internationalism. The American historian, Professor Akira Iriye of Harvard University, pointed out that international relations are not only relations between nations, but also relations between cultures (Iriye, 1997, p.3). Iriye argues that the traditional understanding of international relations as competition for power and wealth, and the consequent neglect of cultural issues, needs to be rethought. In his book Cultural Internationalism and World Order, he argues that a lasting and stable world order cannot rely just on governments and power politics; it also depends upon the open exchange of cultures among peoples in pursuing common intellectual and cultural interests. He advocates that cultural internationalism is a way of forging a stable and lasting international peace. It is an attempt to build cultural understanding, cooperation, and a sense of shared values across national borders through PtPE (Iriye, 1997, p.208). Cultural internationalism has been a constant feature of twentieth-century international relations.

If Hehe represents traditional Eastern wisdom, then Cultural Internationalism is a response to the contemporary global perspective. Cultural internationalism, at its core, reflects a new vision for international cultural collaboration, one that is centered on the principle of peaceful coexistence and mutual growth. In this sense, cultural internationalism and the “Hehe” philosophy are intrinsically linked, with the latter providing a profound ethical and conceptual foundation for the former. They are not merely two theories, but two sides of the same coin. Cultural internationalism represents the practical application of the Hehe philosophy on the global stage, aiming to build a more equitable and peaceful world order. Together, they constitute the guiding philosophy for PtPE.

The philosophical emphasis on the people leads to a fundamental question about the very nature of diplomacy itself. This, in turn, raises critical issues about the strategic significance and practical basis of PtPE. Fifty years ago, a question was raised by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai: “Is diplomacy about interstate relationship or about people-to-people relationship? In other words, who should be taken as the object of diplomacy, the state or the people?” (Liu, 2015, p.244) The question is still meaningful even today.

Retrospectively, the people’s role in diplomacy can be traced in the evolution of Chinese foreign policy discourse and behaviour. Folk diplomacy has constituted an integral part of China’s overall diplomacy. As a continuity and development of folk diplomacy in the 21st century, the PtPE highlight the value and role of human beings in international relations and combine the intellectual essences of cultural diplomacy and folk diplomacy.

Today, with globalisation and technological advances that connect people and ideas at lightning speed, people-to-people connections are playing an even more instrumental role in interstate relationships. In this context, it is imperative to bring people’s roles back into international relations. As one Chinese saying goes, human relationships, if made merely based on material interests, social power or emotions, may break up as soon as those interests are gone, the power fallen, or the emotions parted; they can prove enduring only if rooted in sincere heart-to-heart communications among people.

Recognizing the importance of people’s role in diplomacy, Chinese and Australian leaders are jointly placing PtPE at the core of their diplomatic agendas. In 2024, while attending international summits, and meeting with heads of state, Chinese President Xi Jinping repeatedly called for the acceleration of people-to-people and cultural exchanges. He also advocated the establishment of a people-to-people mechanism within international frameworks, while simultaneously calling for advocacy in favor of harmonious coexistence among civilizations (“Let the sense of common destiny take root in neighboring countries”, 2013, October 25). In July 2025, Prime Minister of Australia, Anthony Albanese, paid an official visit to China. Both sides reaffirmed their support for people-to-people and cultural exchanges, emphasizing their significant role in deepening the bilateral relationship. In the Statement on Joint Outcomes of the China-Australia Annual Leaders’ Meeting, the two sides agreed to continue and expand engagement in people-to-people links, and other exchanges in culture, sports, education, innovation, academia, aviation, health and tourism, including through resumption of the China-Australia Tourism Dialogue. Australia continued to welcome Chinese students and to value their contribution to Australian society. Both sides welcomed more young Australians travelling to China for visits and exchanges, including through international youth exchange programs and initiatives. PtPE have been conceived by the governments of the two countries as an important and integral part of the bilateral relationship. Therefore, people-to-people and cultural exchanges are far more than just a complement to diplomacy; they are the very cornerstone on which a stable, prosperous, and enduring China-Australia relationship is built.

From the perspective of practical basis, this strategic consensus at the highest level is not merely a diplomatic aspiration; it is deeply rooted in a solid foundation of history and reality. The PtPE between China and Australia have deep historical roots, and the foundation for China-Australia friendship at the grassroots level is profound, with frequent people-to-people visits and close cultural ties. Currently, there are over one million Chinese expatriates and overseas Chinese in Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2022). They are not only an integral part of Australia’s multicultural society but also a vital bridge for China-Australia friendship. China has also long been Australia’s largest source of international students and overseas tourists (Australian Government Department of Education [DE], 2024). As of the end of 2024, the number of Chinese students studying in Australia totaled approximately 211,500 (DE, 2024). Furthermore, the two countries have established over 100 pairs of sister provinces/states and sister cities (Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Australia, 2023). Over the past 40 or even 50 years, the bilateral relationship between Australia and China has been enriched and consolidated by PtPE and these will remain an important aspect of relations in the future (Chey, 2024).

As China-Australian relations have experienced ups and downs in recent years, the value of PtPE as a vital bond maintaining the resilience of the bilateral relationship has become increasingly prominent. In an uncertain international environment, continuously strengthening China-Australian PtPE is not only an intrinsic requirement for enhancing the well-being of the two peoples but also a strategic cornerstone for returning bilateral relations to a rational and healthy track.

In light of the theoretical and strategic importance of PtPE, the critical question arises: what are the most effective pathways for promoting China-Australia PtPE? The search for an answer begins with the recognition that enhancing PtPE between China and Australia is both a theoretical endeavor and a practical necessity, involving guiding principles and concrete measures. In this context, the four-dimensional theoretical framework can be applied to guide and advance PtPE. The framework is structured around four diplomatic principles that embody the foreign policy philosophy of contemporary China: affinity (親), sincerity (誠), mutual benefit (惠), and inclusiveness (容). First systematically articulated by President Xi Jinping in 2013 as the guiding philosophy for China’s neighborhood diplomacy, the four principles have since been elevated to guide China’s broader international engagement, providing a key framework for the China-Australia relationship (Xi). To understand how this framework operates in practice, it is essential to examine each principle. The first one is affinity, which is foundational. At its core, international relations are about the connection between people. Affinity is the emotional closeness and acceptance that bridges hearts and minds. It is a powerful force that reflects humanity’s highest aspirations for truth, goodness, and beauty. This is the basis for all cooperation and for a peaceful and developing world. The second principle is sincerity. As the deepest and most lasting foundation for genuine communication, sincerity is the essential ingredient that builds trust, understanding, and respect between individuals. Since PtPE are a vital part of international relations, their central goal is to build this trust, creating a solid foundation of public support for all diplomatic efforts. The third principle is mutual benefit. It is the principle of reciprocity and win-win cooperation. On the world stage, this means seeking economic gains for all, learning from each other’s cultures, and finding common psychological ground. This principle is aligned with the universal desire for prosperity, peace, and development, offering a Chinese vision for a world of shared progress. The last principle is inclusiveness. It is the spirit of tolerance. Chinese culture has always valued the ideas of “great virtue embracing all things” and “a sea accepting a hundred rivers,” creating a profoundly open and inclusive civilization. This spirit is perfectly embodied in the modern vision for major-country relations: one that avoids conflict and confrontation, and instead is built on mutual respect and win-win cooperation. These four dimensions—Affinity, Sincerity, Mutual Benefit, and Inclusiveness—should serve as the guiding principles for the PtPE.

To further promote China-Australia cultural and PtPE, the following measures provide a clear path forward. First, it is advisable to continue the vigorous development of the tourism industry. Tourism is not only a “smokeless industry” but also an important means of cultural and PtPE. It not only stimulates economic growth but also allows tourists to see with their own eyes and personally experience the cultural charm of their destination, achieving two goals at once. Developing and promoting China-Australia tourism is a priority, creating a two-way channel for cultural and PtPE.

However, to deepen this exchange beyond the individual level, it is essential to place greater emphasis on the role of scholars in these exchanges. While a tourist’s firsthand experience influences only one person’s perception, scholars can utilize their unique academic advantages to exert a broader and more profound impact. For instance, literature serves as a powerful vehicle. Scholars from China and Australia, through both research and creative work, have made invaluable contributions to building mutual understanding and deepening appreciation for each other’s history, culture, and values. Another example is translation. Translation plays an indispensable role in China-Australia cultural exchange. Through the translation and introduction of Australian literary works, translators not only enrich the scope, themes, forms, and techniques of translated literature in China but also provide abundant “perceptual material” for enhancing China’s understanding of Australian history, politics, economy, and even daily life. The renowned Australian literature translator, Li Yao, has made substantial contributions to contemporary China-Australia literary exchange. Through nearly fifty years of dedication, he has continuously contributed to the cause of translating and introducing Australian literature. His translation practice, whether in terms of material selection, translation strategies, or publishing involvement, demonstrates a unique concern for contemporary China-Australia literary exchange, allowing more Chinese readers to gain a deep understanding of Australian literature and culture. It is crucial to recognize the vital role that scholars like Li Yao play in China-Australia cultural and PtPE.

Furthermore, exchanges between students and young people are a crucial factor in promoting overall bilateral relations. Australian scholar and former diplomat Jocelyn Chey has proposed that having more Chinese-Australians working in Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and other government departments would better equip the Australian government to address the challenges arising from an increasingly complex international landscape (Chey, 2022). Professor David Goodman, Director of the China Studies Centre at the University of Sydney, shares this same view. When asked by a reporter from China News Service in an interview where to begin in further advancing and improving China-Australia relations, Goodman emphasized the need to strengthen youth exchanges and stated, “Set up schemes for young people” (Goodman, 2025). This statement underscores a strategic consensus: investing in the next generation is the most fundamental and forward-looking approach to securing a stable and prosperous bilateral relationship.

Finally, the role of social media platforms needs to be fully exploited. With the rapid development of digital technology, social media has become a vital medium for cross-cultural exchange. By utilizing digital and intelligent technologies, we can build convenient and efficient international communication platforms. This will strengthen online dialogue and exchange, promote mutual understanding and amity between the Chinese and Australian peoples, and foster the harmonious development of bilateral relations. In an era often marked by misinformation, these channels offer a vital space for authentic voices to counter stereotypes and bridge perceptual gaps. By doing so, we can move beyond formal diplomacy to cultivate a genuine online community, grounded in shared interests and mutual respect.

Having established the theoretical foundations, strategic significance, guiding framework, and practical measures, we now turn to the problems and challenges facing China-Australian PtPE. A primary challenge is the limited involvement of non-governmental forces. While it’s undeniable that governments at all levels have a crucial role to play in guiding and promoting people-to-people and cultural exchanges, this role must be matched by robust participation from the non-governmental sectors. The top-down and bottom-up should work hand-in-hand, mutually reinforcing one another. In reality, however, the contribution of civil society has long been negligible. As many academics have observed, people-to-people interactions should be a natural part of human life and society. If they lose their spontaneous, grassroots, and organic character, they will fail to reach the general public. A second challenge is striking the right balance between organizing a large-scale event and fostering steady, long-term connections. Too often, following some events, there is a prolonged period of “coldness” or inactivity. People-to-people and cultural exchanges between China and Australia require both high-profile, exciting events and consistent, enduring efforts.

PtPE constitute the primary mechanism that ensures a stable and enduring bilateral relationship. The shared destiny of China and Australia is not a product of modern diplomacy, but an ancient story of human connection. To effectively nurture this connection, our efforts must be grounded in a profound theoretical basis—from ancient Chinese wisdom to contemporary theories of global engagement. By fully embracing the strategic value of PtPE, we can apply a coherent guiding framework to direct our efforts into effective concrete pathways. This is how we turn connection into a lasting partnership. Indeed, human connection is fundamental to the formation of shared values. It is the source of vitality in China-Australia relations. To achieve this, it is essential for both parties to strengthen dialogue and interaction, foster genuine affection among their citizens, and build mutual goodwill. Through PtPE, we can deepen and stabilize relations, lay a solid foundation for the goal of building a community with a shared future for the region, and promote people-to-people connectivity, heart-to-heart understanding, and win-win cooperation between China and Australia.

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