1 Brief introduction

This paper explores the portrayal of female identity and otherness in “Lamb to the Slaughter” and Anatomy of a Fall through a diachronic analysis inspired by existentialist feminism. By comparing these narratives, it examines the evolution of women’s experiences and societal roles, highlighting the impact of patriarchy and the struggle for autonomy.

1.1“Lamb to the Slaughter”

“Lamb to the Slaughter” follows Mary Maloney, a pregnant homemaker who, after discovering her husband Patrick’s intention to leave her, kills him with a leg of lamb. In an attempt to avoid arrest, Mary feigns shock, cooks the murder weapon, and tricks the police into eating the evidence.

1.2 Anatomy of a Fall

Sandra, a German author living in Grenoble with her son Daniel and husband Samuel, faces turmoil after Samuel’s unexpected death. Accused of his murder, she leans on a family friend for legal support. The trial reveals strained aspects of their marriage, with critical evidence emerging from an audio recording showing their disputes and Sandra’s frustrations about Samuel’s unpublishable works. As pressure mounts, Daniel’s loyalty wavers, especially when his testimony could impact Sandra’s fate. Despite her fears, Sandra prioritizes her son’s truth over her own interests. Through the trial, Sandra transforms from a passive victim to a determined advocate, fighting not only for her innocence but also to protect her son, reflecting her growth and newfound strength amid adversity.

1.3 Literature Review

In the domain of literary criticism, scholarly investigations concerning “Lamb to the Slaughter” predominantly concentrate on several key dimensions. Firstly, from a structuralist lens, there is an emphasis on the narrative architecture of the text and its resultant implications. Secondly, feminist criticism is employed to examine the portrayal of gender roles and the societal status of women. Thirdly, through the prism of narratology, researchers scrutinize the narrator’s voice and perspective, assessing their impact on the overarching narrative. Fourthly, psychological approaches are utilized to delve into the characters’ mental states and the motivations underpinning their behaviors. Nonetheless, a significant portion of existing research is anchored in a synchronic framework, often prioritizing a formalist approach that examines the text in isolation.

In contrast, this paper endeavors to foreground a diachronic analysis of the text, juxtaposing the canonical work “Lamb to the Slaughter” with the contemporary film Anatomy of a Fall. By invoking existentialist feminism as a theoretical reference point, this study elucidates the evolution of feminist thought and anticipates its prospective trajectories through a longitudinal examination of the theme of “female otherness” as depicted in both literary works.

1.4 De Beauvoir’s Existentialist Feminism

Existentialist feminism seeks liberation by transcending existing boundaries toward new realms of freedom. As Simone de Beauvoir (2014) emphasizes, “the only means to validate the existence of the present lies in its expansion into an infinitely expansive future” (p.39). In her pivotal work, Le Deuxième Sexe, Beauvoir draws from existentialist philosophers like Heidegger and Sartre to frame her thoughts around the concepts of “other,” “transcendence,” and “internality.” She boldly asserts, “We will study women from the existentialist point of view” (p.17), shedding light on how men define themselves as subjects and women as the “other.” This dynamic establishes women’s subordinate status: “The reference that defines and distinguishes women is men” (p.17). Beauvoir (2014) argues that women’s identity as the “second sex” results from external influences, particularly patriarchal systems that shape gender roles. She notes, “The patriarchy that requires a woman to stay at home confirms that she is emotional, introverted, and inner” (p.659). Furthermore, women’s historical roles linked to biological functions like child-rearing limit their transcendence. This intersection of societal and biological factors ultimately confines women within the realm of “immanence” (Liu Huimin, 2010, p.39).

1.5 “The other” Identity of the Female

Sartre (2007) believes that people cannot independently confirm their own existence, “I must obtain some kind of truth about myself through others, and others are indispensable to my existence.” (p.21) Anyone who wants to obtain his own identity must rely on the other. In a way, Sartre believes that the other represents the solidified public idea, which projects a powerful gaze in which the subject senses the gaze of others and thus confirms his own existence. (p.14-18) Beauvoir used “the other” to explain the identity of women, and at the same time gave the concept a new character. (Liu Xiang, 2016, p.1）Beauvoir was influenced by Sartre’s philosophy and believed that self-making and self-being corresponded to the different states of existence of men and women. In the binary opposition between men and women, men absolutely dominate women, and they regard themselves as absolute subjects. They have a direct and normal relationship with the world and believe that they can objectively understand and grasp society. Male is defined as the absolute standard for the female. While the woman is not considered an autonomous being, she cannot define the man: the woman is the other.

2 A comparison of “the other” identity of the female in Anatomy of a Fall and “Lamb to the Slaughter”

In order to better distinguish the concept of the other in the two works, the concept of “the other” is classified first as follows.

Immanence

Immanence characterizes a state where women are perceived as closed, passive, and uncreative (Liu Xiang, 2016). De Beauvoir (2014) argues that survivors embody both internal and transcendent qualities, which coexist and influence one another. However, without societal goals, transcendence may revert into passivity (p. 658). Men, despite seeing themselves as predetermined and passive, self-identify as transcendent and planners, affirming their spirit and will amidst life’s chaos. Women, represented by totemic ancestors, primarily fulfill nurturing roles, perpetuating life without creating; they embody a static aspect of society. In contrast, men lead society towards nature and humanity, engaging in war, hunting, and fishing, which symbolize the expansion of existence and transcendence. Consequently, men are viewed as the sole embodiment of transcendence within the social structure. So the immanence of a woman is not innate, but is imposed on her by the social system.

Independency

The second important characteristic of women as others is dependency. That means women are not in direct contact with society, they are in contact with the world through men, so they can only exist in dependence on men. “They live scattered among men and are more bound to certain men, fathers or husbands by their homes, jobs, economic interests and social conditions than to other women.” (De Beauvoir, 2016, p.33)

Absoluteness

The absoluteness means the other identity of female can never be changed to the other. In Sartre’s theory, the other is a relative concept. The subject affirms its existence through the other, and in turn, the other can identify the subject as the other and thus find its subjective value. （Xiang Yiqian, 2017, p.127-128）However, in both sexes, the other does not have this reciprocity. Because in sexual relations, the man is the absolute standard, He has meaning through himself. But women are not autonomous beings, and women cannot find their own value without mentioning men. The female is the other, and this has never changed, so the female other is absolute. (Liu Xiang, 2016, p.2-3) 

2.1 Similarities

1) Immanence

The Creator has bestowed upon women the function of fertility, yet the process of pregnancy is an arduous journey. De Beauvoir (2016) posits that pregnancy signifies a movement toward the future, where women discover the transcendence of life (p.131). However, this transcendence occurs within the confines of their bodies, making them both transcendent and internal. Motherhood unveils a woman’s inner essence, with transcendence emerging in childbirth, but society often views this merely as a repetition of life, leading to a lack of recognition for the value in giving birth (Liu Xiang, 2016, p.2).

As the sole bearers of children, women are assigned roles in child-rearing and family care, which results in their lives being overtaken by domestic duties. This curtails their desire for dominance and limits their realization of true value within the family unit. The burden of household chores consumes most of a woman’s time, leaving scarce opportunities for fulfillment outside the home.

In “Lamb to the Slaughter”, Mary, a pregnant housewife, embodies this domesticity at the story’s beginning. Anticipating her husband’s return, she tends to household chores while carrying the burden of pregnancy. When confronted with her husband’s betrayal, she does not seek an escape from her domesticity but rather finds solace in her role. This is illustrated by the vivid description of her contentment, noting her “wonderful translucent quality” and the changes in her features due to her condition.

However, after experiencing betrayal, Mary’s transcendence emerges violently, transcending her previous state. By killing her husband, she releases her suppressed transcendental self. This composed act of violence reveals her psychological depth and marks her departure from being ‘the other’.

In Anatomy of a Fall, the female protagonist Sandra experiences similar constraints on her career due to familial obligations. Forced to move to a city where she does not speak the language, her literary aspirations are stifled by familial discord. Yet, her maternal role allows her a different form of transcendence; during a trial, she fervently defends her son, asserting their normalcy and dispelling biases against him. This underscores the complex balance women must navigate between immanence and transcendence in the context of family and societal expectations.

2) Independency

In both “Lamb to the Slaughter” and Anatomy of a Fall, it is evident that society expects women to be attached to men as ‘the other’. In “Lamb to the Slaughter”, Mary’s deep attachment and subsequent grief following her husband’s death reinforced the societal expectation of her as a dutiful ‘wife’. Conversely, in Anatomy of a Fall, Sandra’s calm demeanor and superior career achievements compared to her husband’s during their disagreements and after his death challenged societal norms, leading to her being judged by others. The underlying reason for this judgment is that Sandra’s behavior defies the traditional role of women as dependent ‘others’. Thus, it can be inferred that despite the passage of centuries from the murder in “Lamb to the Slaughter” to Anatomy of a Fall, women continue to struggle to break free from societal constraints in order to achieve true independence.

2.2 Difference

Absoluteness：The reason for the woman’s transformation into the absolute other and inability to reconnect with her essence lies in her inability to perceive the presence of mutuality in her existence. De Beauvoir (2016) posits that throughout history, women have been perpetually intertwined with men, never merging into a cohesive whole, but rather existing in direct relation to men, who serve as their primary connection to the world. Women lack their own distinct history, culture, religion, and so forth, instead living under the absolute dominance of the male. (p.23）

In the short story “Lamb to the Slaughter”, the unequivocal nature of Mary’s subordinate identity is unmistakable. Her entire existence revolves around her husband, whether it be in managing the household or conceiving children, all of which is done solely for the benefit of her husband. The husband holds power over time, dictates emotions, and freely makes decisions regarding the marriage. He is the ultimate authority, while Mary is relegated to the role of the absolute subordinate.

In contrast, in the work Anatomy of a Fall, there is a partial departure from this absolute dynamic. The husband in this story is plagued by guilt over his son’s accident, leading him to willingly take on the sacrificial role, making sacrifices for the family in a manner traditionally expected of women – such as assuming responsibilities for household chores and caring for the son. However, when the husband momentarily shifts into the role of the subordinate, he becomes overwhelmed and ultimately takes his own life.

Throughout history, women have silently accepted their role as the subordinate, indicating that while there have been some advancements in challenging the absolute nature of the female identity as the other, there has not been a fundamental shift in the paradigm. The transition from absolute to relative poses a significant challenge to patriarchal society, one that many men are unable to withstand.

3 Causes for the similarities and differences

This section examines the causes behind the similarities and differences in female experiences as depicted in two works under certain standards.

3.1 Causes for the Similarities

1) The Concept of ‘Nature’ and Its Influence on Female Consciousness

According to feminist philosophy, one of the primary factors influencing the development of female consciousness is the concept of ‘nature’ and its inherent association with women (Xu Fangming, 2024). From a young age, women are often perceived as being more closely connected to nature than men, which shapes their lives and cultures while imposing limitations on their experiences within time and space. This perception not only defines femininity but also restricts women’s roles in society. The progress of women in education and social participation is not linear but influenced by various societal perceptions and structures. (Ma Yuhang, Yang Doingping, 2016）

2) Transition from Matrilineal to Patriarchal Systems

The marginalization of women in societal roles can be traced back to the shift from matrilineal systems to patriarchal structures. This transition has reinforced an asymmetrical power dynamic that favors male authority and suppresses female agency, perpetuating structures biased towards paternal lineage (Xu Fangming, 2024). For example, in traditional Chinese families, the role of women has been historically unequal, influenced by post-marriage living patterns, inheritance systems, and family types (Zhong Nian, 2008).

3) Historical Undermining of Women’s Status

Throughout history, women’s existential status, epistemological importance, and ethical worth have been systematically undermined. Traditional metaphysical frameworks have constructed a narrative of essentialism that reduces women to mere physical beings, relegating them to the sidelines of educational, social, and political spheres. This relegation positions women as the ‘other,’ existing solely in relation to male dominance and authority (Xu Fangming, 2024). Despite legal advancements, the underlying gender power structure remains unchanged, and women’s liberation is often superficial. (Ma Zhu, 2012)

4) Mechanisms of Knowledge and Power Surrounding Gender

Since the 18th century, the mechanisms of knowledge and power surrounding gender have operated through various strategies aimed at controlling and subjugating women. These strategies include pathologizing women’s bodies, regulating children’s sexuality, policing reproductive behaviors, and stigmatizing non-normative pleasure. Within this framework, women are often viewed as material contributors, while men are seen as creators of form and structure (Xu Fangming, 2024). It is argued that these mechanisms are also reflected in cultural products like films, where female images often serve mainstream ideologies. (Wu Jun, 2024)

3.2 Causes for the Differences

1) Social Construction and Unique Formation Processes

From a social constructionist perspective, Mary and Sandra’s differing developmental trajectories stem from their unique formation processes, shaped by historical, familial, and educational factors. Mary, raised during the early feminist movement, embodies the traditional female role defined by societal expectations—what Engels termed “domestic servitude” (Gu Hui, 2018). Conversely, Sandra matured in an era of vibrant feminist discourse, evolving into an intellectual and writer who challenges gender norms. However, Sandra’s defiance of societal expectations, while groundbreaking, remains constrained by persistent societal backlash (Wang Xiaohua, 2021).

2) Changes in Family Internal Power Relations

Changes in familial power dynamics significantly influence women’s status and roles. The weakening of emotional bonds within families, as exemplified by Samuel’s suicide in the film, underscores how familial crises can reshape individual moral development and identity formation (Hu Bufen, 2024). Families, as the primary social units, play a dual role as both stabilizers of societal norms and arenas for negotiating moral and emotional ties.

3) Economic and Social Participation

The degree of women’s economic and social participation is another crucial determinant of their status. Increased female labor force participation contributes to economic development but also presents challenges, particularly in developing regions (Tian Yanping, 2021). Although some progress has been made in improving women’s social and political standing, economic disparities persist. For instance, Gu Hui (2018) highlights that while women’s participation in certain fields has increased, their economic status has declined in relative terms. This underscores the urgent need to reassess gender policies to ensure holistic and equitable progress for women across all domains.

4) Historical Context and Cultural Psychology

Historical and cultural psychological factors also play a pivotal role in shaping women’s roles and status. As Xie Limin (2020) observes, the evolution of women’s roles within families reflects broader social changes, shaped by prevailing ideologies, resource allocation, and cultural norms. The multidimensional transformation of women’s familial roles—ranging from caregivers to active participants in decision-making—highlights the interplay between historical context and cultural psychology in defining women’s identities and societal contributions.

4 Conclusion

By comparing the depiction of women’s identity in “Lamb to the Slaughter” and Anatomy of a Fall, it is evident that the progress of feminism is slow and there is still a long way to go. Despite the centuries that separate these two works, they resonate with each other and collectively illustrate the enduring struggles faced by women over thousands of years. The notion that women are constructed as ‘other’ remains constant, reflecting the patriarchal nature of society. However, there have been changes in perceptions from “Lamb to the Slaughter” to Anatomy of a Fall, indicating a gradual evolution in attitudes towards gender equality. In the current era of significant societal transformations and economic advancements, we anticipate that more individuals will bring women’s marginalized identity from the subconscious to the forefront of consciousness, leading to widespread societal changes. The perceived absolute nature of women’s ‘other’ identity will eventually transition to a relative perspective, enabling women to transcend societal limitations.

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