INTRODUCTION

In China, the translation of and research into Australian literature have gone through a “development process, from nothing to existence, from singleness to richness, from surface to in-depth” (Chen 2016, 134). Since 1906 when the first Australian story was translated into Chinese (Ouyang 2011, 65), the translation and publication of Australian literary works in China have gradually increased, especially since the establishment of diplomatic relations between New China and Australia in 1972. During the 40 years (1979-present) of the Reform and Opening-up in China, scholars on Australian literature have increased, the Australian Research Centers in universities have “proliferated in every direction”1 and the international and domestic academic seminars between the governments and non-governmental organizations have been regularly held. Australian Studies courses are taught in several universities. Therefore, the translation and dissemination of Australian literature in China, “in its unprecedented flourishing” (Ouyang 2011, 65), have achieved “hard-won success”( Wang Guanglin 2011, 51). As one branch of foreign literature in China, Australian literature is gaining attention increasingly among Chinese professional readers and researchers. Therefore the dissemination reception of Australian literature among Chinese primary and middle school students is worth researching.

This article aims at examining how Australian literature is disseminated and received among Chinese primary and middle school students by collecting and analyzing the data in Chinese textbooks and extracurricular reading materials from the beginning of the 1980s till now. The research target and range are chosen for the following reasons. First, Chinese primary and middle school students account for about 1/7 of the population of 1.4 billion in China. They, as one of the important reader groups in China, read most, twice the average reading of the whole nation 2. Second, journals like Literature for Children and The Stories have a long history with a wide audience, very popular with Chinese children and teenagers. As the Chinese-Australian writer Ouyang Yu notes in his review on the translation of Chinese literature in Australia, literature is able to spread to a nation in many ways, one of which is through literary journals (2011, 37). Thirdly, if they are selected in general textbooks, foreign literary works will have a wider influence on the target readers. The Chinese textbooks in primary and middle schools are the most widely used throughout the country and their data are reliable. Last, editions of textbooks and journals from the beginning of the 1980s to the present time are focused on in order to grasp the trend of the dissemination of Australian literature in China during the past 40 years of China’s Reform and Opening-up.

SURVEY OF TRANSLATION AND PUBLICATION OF AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE (1979～PRESENT )

Before New China was founded, the translation and research of Australian literature in China was scarce and far between. When founded, New China was “itself a newly established Communist state taking on forging its own identity by absorbing cultural material from like-minded writers around the world” (Ouyang 2011, 66), calling for learning from the Soviet Union especially, and translation became institutionalized (Wang Yougui 2015, 5); therefore a small number of works of Australian left-wing writers were translated into China. Then the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution brought China’s foreign literature research to a halt. From the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, translation of Australian literature was almost completely stalled. In the early 1970s, relations between China and Western countries, including Australia, began to ease. In December 1972, Australia and China established diplomatic relations, and the political barriers that hindered cultural exchanges were cleared, and literary research began to gradually get on track. In the mid and late 1970s, both China and Australia completed the adjustment of important national policies, injecting new vitality into cultural exchanges. In China, the chaos of disorder was over, marked by the successful convening of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee in 1978, ending the decade-long Cultural Revolution and opening up a new era in socialist cultural construction. Almost at the same time, in Australia, the Labor Party won the general election, announcing the cancellation of the “White Australia Policy” and encouraging Australians to create literary and artistic works. This ushered in a new opportunity for literary prosperity in Australia. Consequently, the translation and research of Australian literature in China entered the initial stage (1979-1988) (Peng Qinglong 2014, 24).

According to the survey,13 Australian novels were translated and published in China in the 1980s, 16 in the 1990s, 35 in the 21st century, altogether 64 in number (excluding those reprinted), involving over 20 publishing houses, including the top publishing houses in China such as People’s Publishing House, People’s Literature Publishing House, Writers Press, Yilin Publishing House, Shanghai Translation Publishing House, etc. Among them are works for children like Colin Thiele’s Storm Boy (1979), David Martin’s Chinese Boy (1983), Allan Marshal’s I Can Jump Puddles （1985）, Ethel Turner’s Seven Little Australians (1996) and Dorothy Wall’s Blinky Bill (2009). Some Australian poets’ works have also been translated and published in various literary journals and so are some dramas, the first of which might be David Williamson’s play What If You Died Tomorrow translated by Yuan Henian and published in the journal Foreign Literatures in 1980 and the first classic drama might be Jack Hibberd’s A Stretch of the Imagination translated by Hu Wenzhong and performed on the stage in Beijing, Shanghai and other cities in the 1980s.

Similarly, several collections of short stories were translated and published in the period. The first collection of short Australian stories was compiled by Liu Shoukang and published in People’s Literature Publishing House in 1982. In the following year, the Commercial Press published Hu Wenzhong’s Selected Short Australian Stories. An Anthology of Contemporary Australian Short Stories edited by Zhu Jiongqiang, published by Zhejiang Literature and Art Publishing House in 1992 and reprinted by Business University Press in 2015 is the first comprehensive collection of representative works from major literary schools in Australia after World War II, including 60 works by 50 writers, of which 52 are abridged short stories and 8 are abridged novels. It selects not only masterpieces from Patrick White and other prizewinners, but also works by newcomers of the 1980s which deeply and fully reflect the social status and cultural characteristics of Australia. The second collection of short stories is Selected Reading of English Short Stories: Australia edited by Zhang Min and published by Xi’an Jiaotong University Press in 2007. This book selects 18 Australian short stories from the 19th century to the 20th century, some of which are presented in both English and Chinese with a profile of the author, and comments on the difficulties and background knowledge in the story. The third one is German and Australian Classic Science Fiction edited by Guo Dongxiang and published by China National Arts Press in 2006.

AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE AMONG SELECTED FOREIGN  WORKS IN CHINESE TEXTBOOKS FOR PRIMARY AND MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS

In this article, “foreign works” refer to works written by foreign authors that have been translated into Chinese, concerning various literary subjects and themes. “Chinese textbooks” refer to specific textbooks used by students and teachers in language courses in schools. Chinese textbooks are the window for Chinese students to understand the world and the basis for students to learn other subjects well. In 1929, the Ministry of Education of China promulgated the “Interim Standards for Curriculum in Primary and Middle Schools”, which clearly stipulated that some selected foreign works should be included in Chinese textbooks (Zhu Shaoyu 1991, 107). Since then, Chinese textbooks have started to select some foreign literary classics. Then what foreign literary classics have been selected and when was Australian literature included?

From 1949 to 1985, the whole nation adopted a policy of one syllabus and one set of textbooks. The People’s Education Press was designated as the only textbook editing and publishing agency for the country. In 1985, “Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Reform of the Educational System” was promulgated. Ever since, the same syllabus and multiple versions of textbooks in parallel have been implemented over China. Different regions or universities can publish textbooks for primary and middle schools. By looking into selected foreign works in the textbooks published by the most authoritative edition of the People’s Education Press, we can see the changes in the process of the selection of foreign works in Chinese textbooks for primary and middle school students in the past 40 years of China ’s Reform and Opening-up and the translation and dissemination of Australian literature among primary and middle school students. From none to some, Australian literature gradually has entered Chinese children's life.

1 FOREIGN LITERARY WORKS IN TEXTBOOKS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

Since the Reform and Opening-up, a large number of foreign literary works have been translated into Chinese and read by Chinese readers. As one of the important media of foreign children’s literature, Chinese textbooks in primary and middle schools have played an important role. Here the selection of foreign literary works in the textbooks for primary school students in the 1982 People’s Education Edition and the latest version of People’s Education Edition in the 21st Century is compared and analyzed.

The 1982 edition consists of ten volumes for five grades, with a total of 310 articles and 23 foreign countries, accounting for 7%. The 2016 edition consists of twelve volumes for six grades, with a total of 313 articles and 56 foreign literary articles, accounting for 18%.

Fig. 1-2 Distribution of the Selected Foreign Works in Chinese Textbooks for

Primary School Students

As is shown in Charts 1-2 above, the 2016 edition of the primary school textbooks has more foreign literature works selected, more than twice the number of the 1982 edition, and the range of source countries is also wider. The 1982 edition involves 11countries, of which the top three are Soviet and Russia (7), France (3) and Italy (3). The latter comes from 14 countries and is still dominated by European literature, but its share has declined slightly (from 87% to 66%). The top three are Soviet and Russia (14), the United States (13) and Italy (6). North America and Asian works increased in proportion from 9% to 23% and 4% to 11% respectively. It can also be found that the number of foreign literary works in the latest version of the textbook has increased significantly and the materials selected are more extensive, but there is not a single one from Australia.

2 FOREIGN LITERARY WORKS IN THE TEXTBOOKS FOR JUNIOR MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS

Fig.3 Distribution of the Selected Foreign Works in Chinese Textbooks for Junior Middle School Students in 1983

Part of the statistics are from the researcher Yang Ruiting (2018, 39).The 1983 edition of Chinese textbooks for junior middle school students reflects the ideological changes and requirements of China’s new period, according to the Third Set of Teaching Syllabus for Middle School students revised by the Ministry of Education in 1980. Six volumes are for three grades, with a total of 169 articles, including 39 foreign works, accounting for 23%, with an average of about 5 to 6 foreign works per book. They come from 11 countries and the top three are the United States (10), France (8) and Soviet and Russia (7). The majority of the foreign works still come from Europe while the USA contributes the most as a single country.

Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, General Secretary Xi Jinping has several times made important instructions on Chinese textbooks. In 2011, the Ministry of Education organized nationwide the compilation and application of teaching materials and gathered a team of about 60 professionals after careful evaluation, recommendation and selection. The initial drafts were strictly assessed. After 14 rounds of evaluation and comments from experts and professional teachers, the new syllabus was approved by Central Propaganda and Ideology Working Group and ready for use in late June, 2016（Wen Ruimin 2016, 4）.

At present, four kinds of junior middle school Chinese textbooks have distinctive characteristics, profound significance and promotion value that are recognized by the Chinese language community. They are Chinese textbooks compiled and published by People’s Education Press, Chinese Publishing House, Jiangsu Education Press and the Education Ministry. Take the textbooks by the Chinese Publishing House and Jiangsu Education Press as examples.

Fig. 4-5 Distribution of the Selected Foreign Works in Chinese Textbooks for Junior Middle School Students in 2016

The charts above are based on the statistics from the researcher Jia Yunzhen (2017, 22-24) and show that the selected foreign works in Chinese textbooks for junior high schools in recent years are still mainly from Europe and the United States. 29 foreign works in Chinese Education Edition come from 11 countries, 10 in Europe (34%), 14 in the USA (48%), 4 in Asia (14%) an 1 (3%) in Oceania. 26 in Jiangsu Education Edition involve 9 countries, including 19 in Europe (73%), 5 in the USA (19%) , 1 in Asia (4%) and 1 in Oceania.（4%）. From the perspective of the selection range, the number of countries involved is not increased, but a new change can be seen in the above charts. Although European and American works are dominant, both the two editions include an Australian work which shows that the selection range has become wider, which also reflects the importance and influence of Australian literature in China.

The Australian literary work selected by the Chinese Education Edition for Grade 9 students in 2016 is Catherine O’Neill ’s short story “Oaida ’s Ideal”, which describes some anecdotes in the growth of a young boy named Oaida, especially when he was in an elementary school and his parents often took him to visit the main scenic spots in Australia. The Sydney Opera House like white sails and shells or cut orange petals, the Gold Coast where you can sunbathe, the Great Barrier Reef where you can swim, the Blue Mountains, Ayers Rock where you can see rare plants, are all filled with Australia regional and cultural characteristics. Chinese children are not only impressed by the natural beauty in vivid language, but they also admire the great Australian image of a little child who is intelligent, independent, adventurous and curious about the unknown world.

In 2016, in the textbook for the eighth grade by Jiangsu Education Press is selected Taggart’s “The Hospital Window” translated by Liu Genlong which first appeared in the issue of Selected Foreign Novels in July 1987. The full text is short and succinct, only more than 1200 words. It does not have the typical Australian style and characteristics, but ends in O Henry’s style which reflects philosophy of life and human nature. The “window” in the title is the clue and metaphor illuminating two souls of good and evil with two diametrically opposite attitudes towards life, revealing the beauty and ugliness of human nature. Therefore, it is profound and worth reading in meaning, reflecting the superb artistic skills of Australian writers. No sooner had it been translated into Chinese, than it was quickly selected into middle school textbooks. While appreciating the writing skills in this story, junior middle school students have not related it to anything particular in Australia except the nationality of its author

3 FOREIGN LITERARY WORKS IN TEXTBOOKS FOR SENIOR MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS

In the six volumes of textbooks for senior middle school students from the 1980 edition to the 2002 edition the number of selected articles is relatively stable and close, with an average of 12 foreign works per volume from a total of about 180. The compulsory textbooks for the new curriculum standard version have five volumes, and the average number of selected texts in each volume is 14. Besides the five compulsory textbooks, 15 additional elective textbooks for the students to read freely for the rest of the time have been compiled with a total of 287 articles with 80 selected foreign works, actually the most in the seven editions of textbooks for senior middle school students.

Table 1 Distribution of the Selected Foreign Works in Chinese Textbooks for Junior

Middle School Students

All the statistics are from the researchers Ban Lan ( 2017, 13-18) and Tang Henglong (2017,11). As can be seen from the above chart, European works have dominated the selected foreign works in the past 40 years while the selected American works have been increasing and the works from the USSR or Russia have been decreasing dramatically. Some new works are selected from Japan in Asia later in the period. Generally, the selected foreign literary works for senior high school students are increasing. However, no single Australian work appears. But in the exercises for Volume 4 as compulsory textbooks of Jiangsu Education press, the abridged Schindler's List is used as a reading material. (Lu Huiyu 2019, 68)

AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE AND SELECTED FOREIGN WORKS IN LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN

Literature for Children as a monthly magazine was co-founded by the Chinese Writers Association and the Central Committee of the Communist Youth League in 1963. For about 70 years since it was first issued, it has attracted and benefited millions of young readers, for several generations. It is known as 鈥淣umber One Journal of Chinese Children鈥檚 Literature鈥?and 鈥渁 banner of Chinese children鈥檚 literature.鈥? It is currently a weekly magazine with a monthly circulation of more than 1.1 million copies. The collection from famous writers and classic works makes it a veritable national publication.Literature for Children , as an important medium for the dissemination of foreign children's literature in China, has influenced countless children since its publication in 1963. The following takes the corresponding editions of Literature for Children in the two periods from 1981 to 1984 and from 2016 to 2018 as the research objects, and compares and analyzes the characteristics of foreign literature selection. We select all the 18 bimonthly journals with 457 articles in total and 40 foreign ones in 1981, 1982, and 1984 and weekly magazines with an equivalent number of journals with 413 articles in total with 58 foreign ones in three months in 2016, 2017, and 2018 as research samples. The average number of foreign works for the former period is 2.2 per issue, accounting for 8.8% of the total. The average number of that for the latter period is 6.4, accounting for 14.0% of the total. Therefore the proportion of selected literary foreign works has increased apparently in the past 40 years.

Table 2 Distribution of the Selected Foreign Works in Literature for Children

In terms of the distribution of foreign works, in the 1980s, Children ’ s Literature selects works from a larger range than Chinese textbooks for primary and middle school students in the same period. Although the major foreign works are still from Europe (47.5%) and the United States (27.5%), the range is wider, 27.5% from Asia, 5% from South America and 2.5% from Africa. The proportion of selected foreign works in the modern issues has changed. Works from Europe and Asia have significantly decreased, and those from the USA have increased significantly. An Australian work has been included, published in the “Foreign Literature Column” in February 2018, entitled “My Friend Simon” written by Michael K. Trotter and translated by Xie Jia and Xie Xiaoqing.

Literature for Children is a nationwide journal with readers aged from 9 to 99 as it is advertised. According to the present editor, it had a circulation of about 200 million annually in  the years 2017-2019.

AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE AND SELECTED FOREIGN WORKS IN THE STORIES

The Stories was first published in 1963 as a bimonthly magazine sponsored by Shanghai Century Publishing Group and edited by Shanghai Story Club Cultural Media Co., Ltd. It is now a semi-monthly magazine since 2004, repeatedly rated as one of the “Top 10 National Readers’ Favorite Magazines with the National Magazine Award. In 1999, it was ranked No.5 among the most widely published comprehensive cultural journals in the world4. The Stories mainly publishes stories reflecting contemporary Chinese social life, incorporating all kinds of popular folk tales and classic foreign stories. Its special column “Appreciation of Foreign Stories” introduces classic and popular foreign literary stories.

The corresponding editions of The Stories in the two periods from 1981 to 1984 and from 2015 to 2018 are taken as the research samples. There are all 730 articles in total and 82 foreign ones in the 18 bimonthly magazines in 1981, 1982, 1983 and 12 monthly magazines in 1984 and 2567 articles in total in all semimonthly magazines with 95 foreign ones in 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018. The proportion in 1981-1984 is among 8%-14% and the average quantity of foreign works in 1981-1984 is between 2 and 3.2. The proportion in the latter period is about 4%, lower than before but the total number of foreign articles with 2 or 3 in each issue is stable.

Table 8 Distribution of the Selected Foreign Works in The Stories

The data above show that in the 1980s, except for these works unspecified for their origins, the selected foreign works are mainly from Europe and Asia. They respectively account for 41.5% and 24.4% of the total. However, no works are from North America, Oceania, and South America in the known data. The Stories from 2015 to 2018 includes works mainly from Asia, 41 (43.2%), North America，34（35.8%）and Europe, 19 (20%). No works are from Africa and South America. But one work from Australia is included.

Western countries are the main sources of foreign literary works in The Stories. The foreign literary works of The Stories come from 29 countries of three continents in the 1980s and 8 countries from four continents after thirty years. The nationality of works in the 1980s was more diverse than in the last decade. However Australian literary work does only appear in the recent issue of the magazine.

The following is an Australian children’s story “A Fox Fur Scarf” written by Paul Jennings, published in Issue 6, 2015. It tells about a fox which was killed by Grandpa to make a scarf for Grandma but later was brought to life by a little boy by feeding the fox fur scarf in the wardrobe with lemons from a lemon tree under where the fox was buried. It is also written in O Henry’s style with a surprising ending, entertaining and enlightening.

AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE AND THE STATUS QUO OF THE SELECTION OF FOREIGN LITERATURE FOR CHINESE CHILDREN

From the statistics on the selection of foreign literature in Chinese textbooks and extracurricular reading materials for Chinese primary and middle school students at the beginning of China’s Reform and Opening-up and in recent years, some conclusions can be drawn as follows. First, generally, foreign literary works in Chinese textbooks and extracurricular reading materials for primary and middle school students are increasing, some even increasing twice the amount in the past 40 years. Second the range of the selection of foreign literature in Chinese textbooks and extracurricular reading materials for elementary and middle schools is getting wider and wider. At the beginning of the 1980s, European literature was the mainstay. In recent years, the proportion of European literature is decreased, especially the works from USSR or Russia while the works from America, Asia are increasing. Works from new continents appear in recent editions of Chinese textbooks and extracurricular reading materials. Australian works are selected and read by Chinese students in their textbooks and reading materials for all the students although the number of the Australian works is still very small.

The reasons for the status quo of selection of foreign literature in Chinese textbooks and extracurricular reading materials for primary and middle schools may be as follows.

Firstly, after China’s Reform and Opening-up in the early 1980s, China’s involvement in the process of globalization has deepened, and diversified exchanges with the world have increased. Foreign works have been added to Chinese textbooks and extracurricular readings, opening a new window for students to know the world and training students to think further and broaden their horizons. Foreign classics are the essence of the ideology and culture of various nations, and the carrier of global discourse. If we want to develop our culture into an advanced one, we need to respect the world’s cultural diversity, face the world’s culture in an active and open attitude, and draw nutrients from the cultures of all the nations of the world. Learning foreign literature is an inevitable development of the times.

Secondly, in the past forty years of Reform and Opening-up, the number, source and theme of foreign works in students’ textbooks and reading materials have been changing and adjusting which also represents the country's social changes in the context of pluralistic times and the attitude and way of handling national and global discourse. Although China’s control of social ideology has weakened since the Reform and Opening-up, and literature and social cultural ideas have developed in a pluralistic manner, yet the capitalist and the socialist societies in the world are still confronted with each other. Due to various factors such as domestic political instability, China remains vigilant and sensitive to the control of political thought. And Chinese textbooks are the best tools for political ideological education. Compared with the development of social culture, the reform of textbooks obviously lag behind. The political discourse of indoctrination is always full of Chinese textbooks. Later Soviet-Russian works decrease and the American ones increase. At the beginning of the 21st century, more modern and humanistic foreign literary works are added, and some modernist literary works are reasonably selected. Works by contemporary Japanese writers or works from South America and Australia appear, and of course European works have always been dominant, for Europe boasts a long history with rich literature. However, the world is diverse, and it is the general trend for students to be exposed to diverse literary classics.

Thirdly, international political relations are also one of the important factors in the selection of foreign literature. Because of this, Australian literature appears in Chinese primary and secondary school textbooks and reading materials. Although the number is small, it reflects the progress and trend of the translation and dissemination of Australian literature in China. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Australia in 1972, the governments of China and Australia have focused on developing friendly and cooperative relations on mutually beneficial economic trade and cultural and scientific and technological exchanges that help to enhance understanding (Hou Minyue 2005, 2). China is willing to participate in international cooperation affairs through reform and opening up, and regard participation in international affairs as a comprehensive learning process; Australia seeks to make its country a bridge between Asian countries and Western countries by highlighting its own special advantages in East-West exchanges. The self-orientation of China and Australia is in harmony with each other, which provides a solid foundation for the sustainable development of the friendly and cooperative relations between China and Australia. The exchanges and development between the two countries over the past 40 years have greatly promoted the translation and dissemination of Australian literature to China. A large number of Australian literary works have been translated into Chinese, although professional readers and researchers are the main readers, ordinary Chinese readers are gradually coming into contact with Australian literature and culture. The selected Australian works in Chinese textbooks and extracurricular reading materials are evidence that they are popular with and have exerted influence on young children in China.

From the statistics of the selected foreign works in Chinese textbooks and extracurricular reading materials for Chinese elementary and middle school students at the beginning of the Reform and Opening-up and in the recent years, we are delighted to see that Australian literature has entered the life of elementary and middle school students as the largest reading group in China. But at the same time, we can also find that Australia, as a country full of exotic cultures, is rich in literary works, and more classic Australian works should be introduced and translated to average readers in China so as to realize truly diversified literature, and provide Chinese youth with a broader cultural vision. It is an “unprecedented flourishing” Australian literature in China as Ouyang Yu points out（2011, 65）, but the profile of Australian literature is still low and its promotion, compared to other countries, could be better coordinated as Australian Chinese writer Zhao Chuan, Australian literature specialist Huang Yuanshen and Publisher Wei Xinghong all agree (Broinowski 2011, 5 ). It still has a long way to go in the dissemination of Australian literature in China.

Notes

1. See Nicholas Jose’s “Australian Literature Inside and Outside Barry Andrews Memorial Address”, P1.

2. See 2018 全民阅读调查数据出炉！看看你达标了吗？_网易订阅 https://dy.163.com/article/ED2KG9J50514IDL3.html;NTESwebSI=B81BCA630 DA1697E50D17DB1C6A8C43A.hz-subscribe-web-docker-cm-online-rpqqn-8gfz

3. see 儿童文学_360 百科https://baike.so.com/doc/5404919-7431052.html, accessed 5 June, 2020.d-zwd1g-65ff64gb5hn-8081, accessed 5 June, 2020.

4. see 故事会_360 百科 https://baike.so.com/doc/5125537-5354795.html, accessed 5 June, 2020.

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